Talk like an Italian studies researcher

Alchemist — someone who practises alchemy

Alchemy — the medieval discipline concerned with creating the Philosophers’ Stone, which combined philosophy, early understanding of chemistry and ideas about magic

Base metal — a non-precious metal, such as copper, tin or lead

Medieval — the period in European history from the 5th to 15th centuries

Philosophers’ Stone — a mythical substance capable of curing illness and turning base metals into gold

Textual criticism — the academic process of determining the most accurate version of an original text by comparing all available existing versions

Transmission — how a text has evolved over time as it has been copied

Transmutation — the process of transforming one substance into another, such as base metals into gold

Cristoforo da Parigi was a mysterious man – an alchemist passionate about using knowledge to help the poor and to address social and economic injustices. “The identity of Cristoforo is still shrouded in mystery,” says Dr Matteo Soranzo, a professor of Italian studies at McGill University. “My research suggests that he might have been a pharmacist, writing letters from Paris in the 1400s to a man named Andrea Ognibene back in Cristoforo’s hometown of Venice.”

What were alchemists trying to achieve?

The medieval discipline of alchemy focused on two key aims. “First, there were practical concerns of making the Philosophers’ Stone – a substance believed to be capable of turning base metals into gold, as well as healing humans from various ailments,” says Matteo. “There was also an emphasis on reaching the spiritual and mental mindset necessary for the alchemist to succeed in this very difficult operation.”

Alchemists believed that purity of both body and soul were needed to successfully create the Philosophers’ Stone. While Matteo has not yet identified Cristoforo in historical records, he is learning about him, his peers and the culture in which they lived through the letters Cristoforo wrote. For example, Matteo has discovered that Andrea (the recipient of Cristoforo’s letters) belonged to a religious order that encouraged its members to whip themselves to seek forgiveness for sins. “Elements of this harsh spirituality appear in Cristoforo’s letters as necessary steps to achieve the alchemical transmutation,” explains Matteo.

How is Matteo analysing Cristoforo’s texts?

First, Matteo must find copies of Cristoforo’s works. “I travel to libraries and archives throughout Europe and North America,” he says. “It is remarkable how many 15th century manuscripts crafted in Italy ended up in other countries.” Then, he transcribes and translates the manuscripts and uses digital tools to help him annotate the sources so he can compare different copies of the same text.

Matteo is interested in the transmission of Cristoforo’s texts – how his original letters were reproduced and shared. “Manuscripts appear to have been copied by amateur scribes, driven by interest in Cristoforo’s alchemical knowledge,” he says. Analysing ancient manuscript sources in this way is called textual criticism, a cutting-edge historical method for recreating old texts. “This involves reconstructing the transmission of a text and establishing a critical edition (an accurate version of the original text) by comparing all the existing copies available and formulating a hypothesis about their mutual relationships,” explains Matteo.

Matteo has two main aims for his work. “At a basic level, I want to bring back to life a very prolific, yet largely forgotten, writer and sharer of alchemical ideas who used the everyday Italian of the time, rather than Latin, as his language of choice,” he says. “At a more ambitious level, I want to build a bridge between textual criticism and the history of science, showing how these disciplines can benefit from each other.” Matteo’s work enables him to explore the cultural history of late medieval Italy, and to make contributions to our understanding of the history of science. “My research explores how scientific knowledge and ideas were embedded in and influenced by broader culture,” he explains. “My work examines how scientific concepts were communicated and understood by the public.”

What stories does Cristoforo tell?

By translating Cristoforo’s letters, Matteo has uncovered fascinating details about how beliefs in alchemy were embedded in everyday medieval life. For example, Cristoforo tells Andrea about finding an urn in an ancient Roman tomb which he said was filled with quintessence – the pure ‘fifth element’ that was believed to fill the heavens. “According to Cristoforo, thanks to this remarkable substance the urn was still emanating a pleasant scent centuries after its construction,” says Matteo.

One letter tells of a glassmaker on the island of Murano in Venice who was creating the glass tools that alchemists used to try and create the Philosophers’ Stone. Today, Murano is famous for producing beautiful hand-blown glass, but Cristoforo’s writing shows that in medieval times, its artisans were investing their glassmaking skills in alchemical pursuits.

“Finally, there is Cristoforo’s emphasis on the alchemist’s spirituality, necessary to achieve the much-sought-after transmutation of base metals into gold,” says Matteo. “His letters include detailed instructions on how to achieve this state of spiritual perfection.”

How does culture impact scientific ideas?

Perhaps most importantly, Matteo has learnt how Cristoforo’s motives were influenced by the culture of the time. “Building on medieval ideas, Cristoforo wanted to use alchemy to correct socio-economic injustices,” says Matteo. “He addresses his teachings to Andrea, a man who is struggling to feed his children. Cristoforo wishes the Philosophers’ Stone is used only by poor people who are well-intentioned and spiritually sound. At the time, a capitalist economy was becoming the norm in Italy and Europe, and it looks like Cristoforo wanted to correct the excesses of this new economic system and its impact on society.”

Matteo’s work helps us to explore how scientists are influenced by the culture of their time. “Some scientists today isolate their pursuits and discoveries from their culture,” says Matteo. “However, research questions and methods do not come about in a vacuum but are shaped by the surrounding culture. An emphasis on technology and financial profit reflects a Western capitalist culture and practices like ‘extractivism’ – exploiting resources for economic gain. These focuses often marginalise alternative approaches driven by ancient beliefs that nature is a living being that needs to be protected. Looking at the past helps us look at the present as a possible answer, but not the only answer, to questions that are as old as humankind.”

Dr Matteo Soranzo
Department of Languages, Literatures and Cultures, McGill University, Canada

Fields of research: Italian studies, literature studies, cultural history

Research project: Analysing texts written by the medieval alchemist Cristoforo da Parigi

Funder: Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC)