Catching an individual who has committed theft poses challenges, but forensics and CCTV make it easier for law enforcement to do so. However, pinning down complex, large-scale cases of fraud, money laundering or corruption can be very difficult, and charging an organisation with an economic crime can sometimes cause a whole cascade of negative effects on innocent parties. At the University of Ottawa in Canada, Dr Jennifer Quaid studies the law around economic crime and corruption, and how it can be best used to catch and charge those who manipulate systems illegally for financial gain.

For Jennifer, her work often feels like untangling a logic puzzle. “I enjoy the challenge of digging into the details of a legal problem to figure out how to apply a set of legal rules, and explaining this to others in straightforward ways,” she says. “These little nuggets help me see patterns or connections to other problems.” She also believes that it is important to strive for better laws and legal practices. “I believe that our role as researchers is to search for evidence to help make the world a better place,” she says. “It might be through small and incremental contributions, but I find being part of a bigger collective effort so rewarding.”

Pathway from school to criminal law

Jennifer says that reading comprehension and writing proficiency are essential, as is a strong knowledge of history, which provides the context for laws. She adds that speaking several languages is an asset, as is a strong capacity for critical thinking. At school, subjects that can develop these skills include law, English, history, political science, sociology and foreign languages.

At university, there are many law degrees and variants. Adjacent fields that can lead to a career in legal research include many social sciences, such as criminology, sociology, psychology and public policy.

Explore careers in criminal law

Jennifer emphasises that law is highly jurisdiction-specific, meaning that learning the legal landscape of one country may not be applicable to others – so it is important to think about where you want to work before you begin your studies and find appropriate resources to help your decision. For Canada, this page from Canadian Lawyer can help this process.

Jennifer’s work as a criminal law researcher often involves talking to the media and explaining the legal background and/or implications of well-known legal cases. Watch these interviews with Jennifer to gain an insight into the cases and issues work in her field can involve (the first two are in English and the third in French):

youtube.com/watch?v=SyWuflGwG8c

youtube.com/watch?v=iPRegg3qetg&t

youtube.com/watch?v=xiAJVRa6_B8

In this video, Jennifer discusses corporate criminal liability (in French and with English subtitles).

The Faculty of Law at the University of Ottawa runs the Jurivision project, which highlights the work of legal researchers and practitioners in Canada and around the world.

Meet Jennifer

© Mary Ellen Cavett

I was first drawn to law by the idea of ‘fighting the good fight’ in court. In high school, I liked debating and public speaking, which I thought meant I’d be good at law. The truth is much more nuanced as many lawyers never even go to court. Even those that do spend a lot more time preparing, reading, writing and thinking than they do in court.

I practised as a lawyer before I was a researcher. Oral communication and advocacy skills were essential, and not just in court. The work of a lawyer involves a lot of interaction with colleagues, clients and public officials. Working closely with clients was a highlight of my time in private practice.

I have had some extraordinary luck in my career. My research expertise has proven relevant to several significant events in Canada and the wider world, which has enabled me to contribute to important public policy debates.

My proudest moments are when I can help move discussions forward, to provide information and evidence to people who need it, and to encourage productive consensus. Some of these moments may not seem very remarkable in themselves – a radio interview, a classroom discussion or a published paper – but they always move the needle on understanding.

I have a big research project lined up. I will study the recent reform to Canadian competition law, exploring how its ambition can be translated into concrete action. In the longer term, I plan to write a textbook on corporate criminal liability in Canada. Economic crime will be a big part of that.

Jennifer’s top tips

1. Take time to find your place professionally. Careers are long, and there will be twists and turns that might surprise you.

2. All experiences, including mistakes and obstacles, are important opportunities to learn and grow.

3. Believe in yourself. Persistence and hard work will pay off – but remember that success is state of mind, not a moment.

Do you have a question for the Jennifer?
Write it in the comments box below and she will get back to you. (Remember, researchers are very busy people, so you may have to wait a few days.)

Learn more about criminal law:

futurumcareers.com/what-causes-wrongful-prison-convictions

Microplastics have the rather unhelpful habit of attracting and transporting other micropollutants such as pesticides, dyes and pharmaceuticals, often causing them to accumulate in levels harmful to humans, animals and the environment. At Kansas State University in the US, Professor Daniel Higgins is using advanced microscopy techniques to investigate how micropollutants are attached to, transported by and released from microplastics, increasing our understanding of the risks they pose.

Whereas SMT shows how individual molecules behave, confocal fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) observes many molecules simultaneously, better revealing how fast they move and how many are present. When fluorescent dye molecules move through a microscope’s detection area, they produce brief bursts of light. A mathematical process called autocorrelation is used to analyse these bursts to learn about the molecules’ movements. “FCS allows us to precisely determine how fast the molecules are moving, even if they are moving very rapidly, or if they interact with the plastic surface for only very brief periods of time,” says Dan.

Findings and future steps

Dan and his students have discovered that the properties of microplastics vary across their surfaces, and at least two mechanisms cause interactions with micropollutants. “Unweathered (hydrophobic) plastic regions readily accumulate lipophilic molecules that are easily released when the plastic migrates into a different environment, such as when it is ingested by living creatures,” says Dan. “Weathered (hydrophilic) regions allow the microplastics to be more readily dispersed in water, and provide sites for certain organic micropollutants to become strongly attached to the microplastics.”

While there is still much research to be done, the team’s results are highly valuable. “Our results provide new clues as to how micropollutants behave when they interact with microplastics,” says Dan. “This helps us understand the true level of hazard posed by micropollutant-laden microplastics, while also providing ideas for how plastics may be altered to eliminate microplastics or better control their abilities to transport other hazardous chemicals.”

Professor Daniel Higgins

Department of Chemistry, Kansas State University, USA

Field of research: Chemistry

Research project: Studying how micropollutant molecules accumulate on microplastic surfaces

Funder: The US National Science Foundation (NSF) supported this work through grant CHE-2502696. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the NSF.

About chemistry

Being a chemist means learning about and working with the building blocks of matter. Chemists explore the properties of matter, how different substances interact and what happens when changes take place. “The best part of being a chemist, or a scientist in general, is the thrill of discovering new knowledge,” says Dan. “Whenever we perform experiments in the laboratory, we observe chemical phenomena that have either never been seen before, are not well understood or have not previously been explored by our methods.”

Chemists may be involved in many different activities. “Most professional chemists work in industry and may spend much of every day in a laboratory or factory running chemical syntheses, monitoring chemical processes, making chemical measurements or creating computer models of chemicals, their reactions and their properties,” says Dan. “Those working in national laboratories around the world do experiments, read scientific articles in their area of speciality and brainstorm creative ideas for new experiments, theories, synthetic chemicals and chemical materials.” University-based chemists are often also involved in teaching and mentoring students.

Future chemists will address the challenge of making new plastic food and drink packaging that is safer for humans and can be more easily recycled or degrades more effectively if released into the environment. “Micropollutants of great concern these days are poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), also known as ‘forever chemicals’,” says Dan. PFAS are very useful chemicals, found in non-stick coatings, lubricants and fire extinguishers, but they are also lipophilic and hazardous to humans and animals. “Chemists in the future will be working to make new materials that have similar useful properties but are far less persistent in the environment and far less hazardous.”

Pathway from school to chemistry

At school, focus on chemistry, mathematics and physics to build a strong base. “At university, students should take more in-depth courses in chemistry, biochemistry, math and physics,” says Dan. “Strong backgrounds in computer programming, modelling and data science are also becoming increasingly important.”

“Chemists need to be curious,” says Dan. “They need to be able to think creatively and come up with new ideas that will help solve or better understand the world’s existing and emerging problems. As modern chemistry is very much a collaborative science, they also need to be able to work closely with collaborators from chemistry and other sciences, and those from entirely different fields like business. Chemists must also be strong communicators who are able to explain complex chemical phenomena to other scientists, policy makers and the public.”

Explore careers in chemistry

Chemists can work in medicine, academia, national laboratories, or the chemical, pharmaceutical or consumer products industries. Chemists solve problems, create new products, get involved in policymaking and standards-setting, or teach and train the next generation of scientists.

“The American Chemical Society (acs.org) and the Royal Society of Chemistry (rsc.org) are the most well-known professional chemistry societies and encourage student membership,” says Dan. “They provide many helpful resources to chemists as they develop in their careers and many opportunities for networking.”

“There are many student-centred organisations, such as Alpha Chi Sigma and Phi Lambda Upsilon in the US for students in college or graduate school,” continues Dan. “These provide many opportunities and are excellent venues for meeting others and networking. For example, the Kansas State University local chapter of Alpha Chi Sigma provides extensive opportunities for students to become involved in outreach activities.”

Meet the team

Mohammad Motiur Rahman

My high school science teacher inspired me to study chemistry. His ability to observe and explain daily phenomena was fascinating.

Every day in the lab is a dynamic, hands-on adventure! My role is an exciting mix of two worlds: as a teaching assistant, I get to help undergrads discover their own spark for chemistry, and as a research assistant, I dive deep into my own research. It’s collaborative, fast-paced and never boring!

Every experiment I run and every challenge I solve brings me closer to my ultimate dream: becoming an independent researcher who can bring positive changes in society to make our future lives more liveable.

Mohammad’s top tips

1. Look for the daily magic, not just formulas. Chemistry isn’t just equations on paper; it’s the secret code behind everything happening around us every second.

2. Treat lab setbacks like a puzzle. Real scientists don’t get things right on the first try! Learning through trial and error is half the fun, and solving a tricky problem feels amazing.

3. Dream big about impact. Chemistry gives you the power to tackle huge real-world challenges.

Olawale Aina

I grew up in Lagos, Nigeria, and my grandfather, a retired geochemistry professor, used to take me on walks along the Lagos Lagoon. He’d explain how years of industrial pollution had changed the oily sheen on the water. Those walks planted a question in my head: What is actually happening to our water, at the smallest possible level?

I previously studied environmental management and toxicology, which shapes how I approach my chemistry research: always connecting the small details back to the bigger environmental picture.

I study how organic micropollutants stick to the surface of microplastics. Using SMT, I can watch individual molecules, and that level of detail helps explain why microplastics act like tiny sponges and delivery trucks for pollution in rivers, lakes and oceans.

I want to keep working at the intersection of chemistry and environmental protection, using science to answer real-world pollution questions to help communities like the one I grew up in.

Olawale’s top tips

1. Stay curious about the ‘why’ behind things you notice in the world around you.

2. Don’t be afraid to change direction once you find the question that really grabs you.

Sorour Salehi

I did not grow up knowing I wanted to be a chemist. Over time, I became fascinated by the idea that things we cannot see can explain so much of what happens around us. Now, I get to connect that curiosity with an environmental problem that affects all of us: plastic pollution.

I enjoy the independence I have as a researcher. I have space to think, try new ideas, make mistakes, troubleshoot problems and slowly find my own way of doing research.

Research can be frustrating, but it teaches you patience and how to keep going when the answer is not clear. For me, turning small observations into new understanding is one of the most rewarding parts of being a scientist.

Sorour’s top tips

1. As a high school student, you do not need to know what you want to do – I’m still figuring out what I want my long-term career to look like!

2. Do not judge yourself by whether every class or experiment feels easy. Being a good scientist means being curious enough to keep asking questions when you do not know the answer.

Do you have a question for the team?
Write it in the comments box below and they will get back to you. (Remember, researchers are very busy people, so you may have to wait a few days.)

Learn what happens to plastics as they break down into microplastics:

futurumcareers.com/what-happens-when-plastics-break-down-into-microplastics-and-nanoplastics

Computer chips are found all over our modern world in devices ranging from laptops and smartphones to motorbikes and washing machines. But what happens when you send a computer chip into outer space? Professor Li Chen from the University of Saskatchewan in Canada runs the STARR-Lab where his team investigates the effects of radiation on semiconductors and designs new chips that work reliably in the harsh conditions of space.

About electrical engineering

“Almost everyone interacts with the work of electrical engineers from the moment they wake up,” says Li. “They help generate the power in our homes, build communication networks, design smartphones and computers, develop medical equipment, create the electronics used in cars, aircraft and spacecraft, and so much more!”

What makes the field especially exciting is its enormous range of scale. “An electrical engineer might work on a power station large enough to supply a city or on a transistor so small that its most important features are only a few atoms across,” explains Li. “Our modern world depends on the work of electrical engineers, and the next generation will be able to push the boundaries even further in areas such as artificial intelligence, renewable energy, robotics, quantum computing and space exploration.”

“One of the most rewarding parts of electrical engineering is seeing an idea become something real,” continues Li. “A project may begin as just a drawing on a board, a computer simulation or a few lines of code, but eventually you may be able to hold the finished device in your hand and watch it work. That is such a rewarding feeling.”

As an electrical engineer, you will have to solve complex problems. “There may be ten different ways to solve the same problem, each with different costs, risks and advantages,” says Li. “The challenge is not simply finding one answer, but deciding which answer works best in the real world. That uncertainty can be difficult, but it is also what makes engineering so interesting and creative.”

You can prepare for these challenges by developing your critical-thinking, problem-solving and communication skills. “You should also become comfortable with trying an idea, discovering that it doesn’t work and improving it,” advises Li. “In engineering, failure is often not the end of an experiment – it is the information that leads to the next one.”

Pathway from school to electrical engineering

“Mathematics and physics provide an important foundation because they are necessary to understand how electricity, forces and energy behave,” advises Li. “Computing and programming are also increasingly valuable, as modern electrical systems usually combine hardware and software.”

Practical experience is just as important as learning technical information. “You can learn a great deal from a textbook, but building something teaches you in a way that a book alone cannot provide,” says Li.

Join robotics clubs, electronics projects, coding groups or other industrial-arts courses. “Even a simple project, such as using a sensor to switch on a light, can introduce you to the same process of designing, testing and improving that professional engineers use,” says Li.

Explore careers in electrical engineering

“An electrical engineer might design power lines that stretch across many miles, antennas that communicate with satellites, autonomous machines that explore mines or transistors that are far too small to see with the human eye,” says Li. “The kinds of careers that are possible are too long to list!”

Other potential careers include working with computer simulations, medical devices, renewable energy, robotics, nanomaterials or spacecraft systems. “There is something for anyone who enjoys technology, especially those interested in using it to solve problems and improve people’s lives,” enthuses Li.

Explore the websites of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and the Institution of Engineering and Technology to learn more about careers in this field.

Meet Li

When I was younger, I was interested in electronics and small science projects. For example, I made small steam boats (by filling empty eggs with water and burning a candle underneath them), a simple prototype of a stealth periscope and a magnetic coil for weight lifting. These simple scientific projects were guided by my dad’s magazines and books, which inspired my curiosity in science and engineering.

I love working with and training students. Taking part in our research can help them achieve their career goals.

I am driven by curiosity and a desire to understand how complex electronic systems behave under challenging conditions, particularly in radiation environments. This motivation led me to specialise in semiconductor reliability in space.

Perseverance has been critical to my career. Research in electrical engineering often involves long-term projects, experimental setbacks and difficult technical problems. The ability to remain focused and continuously seek solutions has been important throughout my career.

I have benefited from interdisciplinary collaboration. Research into the effects of radiation requires expertise in device physics, circuit design, semiconductor technology, computer engineering and reliability analysis. Working with researchers from different backgrounds has broadened my perspective and enabled more impactful research outcomes.

I usually unwind by spending time with my family, taking walks and playing badminton. These activities help me disconnect from daily research challenges, maintain balance and return to work with renewed energy and a fresh perspective.

Li’s top tip

Curiosity and persistence are often more valuable for an engineer than already knowing the answer.

Do you have a question for Li?
Write it in the comments box below and he will get back to you. (Remember, researchers are very busy people, so you may have to wait a few days.)

Learn about other scientists working with transistors and semiconductors

futurumcareers.com/how-can-the-transistors-in-your-smartphone-form-quantum-dots

Paper mills are incredible machines that churn out thousands of tonnes of paper every single day. Despite this output, engineers are constantly looking for new ways to improve the paper production process. Working in collaboration with Veolia and Holmen Paper at RISE Research Institutes of Sweden, Luis Carlos Felix Tapia is part of a team that has developed a new process for treating and recycling wastewater in paper mills to make them more efficient, sustainable and cost effective. The original concept and project were conceived by Luis Fernando Delgado Zambrano, a former researcher at RISE.

Before they can reuse this contaminated water, paper mills must treat it to remove chemicals and dissolved organic materials. “Normally, this is achieved through a combination of mechanical treatment followed by biological treatments,” says Luis. Mechanical treatments remove solid waste, such as large particles, sand or fragments of plastic, by passing the water through screens, allowing sediments to settle to the bottom of large tanks, less using microscopic bubbles to capture stray wood fibres and float them to the surface.

Biological treatments remove organic substances, such as dissolved wood sugars (starch) and complex wood resins, by allowing bacteria in the water to feed on them. Usually, this takes place in aerobic biological basins where microorganisms clump together, growing directly in the water (known as activated sludge basins) or as biofilms on plastic supports (known as carriers) that float in the water of a moving-bed biofilm reactor, or MBBR.

“Although aerobic biological treatment is effective, it is also energy-intensive, involves nutrient addition and creates a lot of sludge which has to be processed,” says Luis. “Moreover, it does not enable energy recovery from the organic matter, limiting its overall sustainability.” On the other hand, anaerobic treatment (using bacteria that do not require oxygen) provides opportunities to reduce energy consumption, nutrient requirements and sludge production. It also has the added benefit of potentially producing methane which can be used as biogas to help power the paper mill. “Although anaerobic treatments have many advantages, they typically require an aerobic step to completely remove the dissolved substances and contaminants,” explains Luis.

Improving the system

“During the SupWat project, we used an anaerobic MBBR followed by an aerobic MBBR (AnoxKaldnes MBBR Technologies, Veolia) as the main biological treatment steps, then a final ultrafiltration step,” says Luis. Using anaerobic treatment meant that less sludge was produced, and combining this with aerobic treatment allowed the system to remove dissolved substances more efficiently. Luis and the team at RISE tested this innovative system and found that it could help to improve the energy efficiency of the paper production process.

“It has been estimated that the drying section of the paper making process consumes 64% of the total energy,” says Luis. “Higher concentrations of dissolved substances in the process water increase drainage time and thus energy consumption in the drying stage.” Luis and his team showed that the removal of dissolved substances by their new system reduced drainage time, which could potentially lead to greater energy efficiency, performance and sustainability in Sweden’s paper mills.

“I love the thrill of finding innovative solutions that will eventually lead to practical applications in the industry,” says Luis. “I enjoy the combination of being in the laboratory and finding results that will be able to scale the processes into real paper mills.”

Luis Carlos Felix Tapia

Project Manager; Senior Research and Development Engineer, RISE Research Institutes of Sweden

Luis Fernando Delgado Zambrano

Project scientific leader

Fernando Morgan-Sagastume

Project advisor; Senior Process Specialist, R&D AnoxKaldnes MBBR Technologies, Veolia Water Tech

Mathias Bohman

Project participant; Senior Development Engineer, Holmen Paper           

Thomas Welander

Senior Advisor, R&D AnoxKaldnes MBBR Technologies, Veolia Water Tech

Fields of research: Chemical engineering; industrial water management; sustainable packaging and materials

Research paper: Sustainable process water treatment for the paper industry (SupWat)

Funder: Swedish Research Council for Sustainable Development – FORMAS (Diary number: 2023-02054)

Do you have a question for Luis?
Write it in the comments box below and he will get back to you. (Remember, researchers are very busy people, so you may have to wait a few days.)

Learn about other techniques for treating wastewater:

futurumcareers.com/how-can-hydrogels-remove-heavy-metal-pollution-from-wastewater

As a limnologist at York University in Canada, Dr Jennifer Korosi spends her summers collecting water samples and mud from the bottom of lakes in the Dehcho region of the Northwest Territories. By analysing these mud and water samples, Jennifer is uncovering how lakes in peatland environments are responding to permafrost thaw, helping communities to manage the impacts of climate change.

What does limnology fieldwork involve?

The Scotty Creek Research Station has not been immune to the effects of permafrost thaw – it has had to be relocated twice since it was first constructed in the 1990s as the peatland has collapsed, and it had to be rebuilt after being burnt down by a forest fire in 2022. The station is composed of permanent tents connected by a series of boardwalks that allow people to walk around on the wet peatland. There are no roads to access the station, so Jennifer and her team arrive by float plane. The station operates all year round, and in winter, researchers travel there by snow machine.

“A typical day of fieldwork involves hiking to the lakes from the station with our gear, then spending several hours collecting cores and water samples, before carrying everything back to base,” says Jennifer. “It’s hard work and involves a lot of heavy lifting, but fieldwork is the best part of the job!”

Fieldwork can also be challenging. The weather can be bad, equipment can break and the remote location means researchers can’t just go to the store to get new supplies. “To overcome this, we prepare extensively for field seasons,” says Jennifer. “We try to anticipate what might go wrong and have back-up plans in place to deal with them. But we can’t anticipate everything, so the most important thing is to be able to think creatively and stay calm in stressful conditions.”

Pathway from school to limnology

“Limnology is a field that integrates biology, chemistry, physics, physical geography, geology and social sciences to better understand and protect our inland waters,” says Jennifer.

At high school, studying geography, biology and chemistry will teach you about water systems, while mathematics will give you the skills limnologists need to statistically analyse data.

“The most common university degrees for studying limnology are biology, physical geography and environmental science,” says Jennifer. “There are also several environmental technician programmes at colleges that train students in limnological sampling.”

“The most important advice I have is to spend time on or near the water,” says Jennifer. “There is so much you can learn from lakes that you can’t easily learn in a classroom. And if you are interested in field-based limnology work, learn to be comfortable working in bad weather!”

Explore careers in limnology

“Limnology work has never been more important, as urbanisation and natural resource development accelerate in the context of a warming climate,” says Jennifer. “We need people who can understand and appreciate the complexity of our inland aquatic ecosystems and help in the search for solutions.”

Limnologists can find work with governments, conservation authorities, environmental consulting companies, not-for-profit organisations and research institutions.

Look for opportunities to volunteer with conservation authorities and lake stewardship societies to gain practical experience and meet like-minded people. For example, organisations such as Freshwater Conservation Canada (freshwaterconservationcanada.org) and the Canada Lakes Conservation Association (canadalakesconservation.com) run activities and events for community members.

Academic organisations provide information about limnology research and careers. Explore the websites of the International Society of Limnology (limnology.org), the Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography (aslo.org), the International Paleolimnology Association (paleolim.org) and the Society of Canadian Aquatic Sciences (scas-scsa.ca).

Meet Jennifer

In high school, I played hockey and soccer, and I was an avid reader. I’ve also always loved to be outside. As a teenager, I enjoyed hiking, camping and paddling – activities I still love today. I also now enjoy gardening, skiing and fishing – anything that gets me outside!

I took a limnology course during my undergrad in biology, and that was the moment I knew I wanted to be a limnologist. I got a summer research assistant position with the professor of that course, which involved three weeks of fieldwork taking sediment cores from lakes in the Halifax metropolitan area. I then did my undergraduate honours thesis with the same professor, studying zooplankton fossils in sediment cores from lakes in the Muskoka region of Ontario, which led me to graduate school.

I’ve been lucky to have so many amazing field experiences! One of my favourite memories is of a community event at the Scotty Creek Research Station. It was a beautiful day, and it felt meaningful for us to all come together, especially as it came shortly after COVID.

Permafrost thaw is a complicated issue. Bringing together people with diverse experiences and knowledge leads to better research, as well as research that is more likely to lead to tangible benefits for the communities who are most impacted by climate change. As a researcher from a university in southern Canada, I’ve learned so much from the Dene communities of the Dehcho who have taken care of the land since time immemorial.

I love to be out on the water. The landscapes of the Dehcho region are beautiful, and I feel very fortunate to spend so much time there. I am also passionate about freshwater conservation. I’m grateful to have a job where I can make a difference in raising awareness about the challenges facing our lakes and helping make better decisions about freshwater stewardship.

My favourite fact about lakes is that they have memory! The history of the lake, including how it formed and any disturbances it experienced in the past, influences how resilient a lake is to future stresses.

Jennifer’s top tip

Don’t be afraid to make mistakes. When I look back on my career path, the most important and transformative moments came from difficult times and when I made mistakes. Those mistakes will help you learn and teach you what is important to you and what you are capable of. So focus more on your personal growth rather than comparing yourself to others.

Do you have a question for Jennifer?
Write it in the comments box below and she will get back to you. (Remember, researchers are very busy people, so you may have to wait a few days.)

Learn how wetlands are being impacted by human activities and climate change:

futurumcareers.com/wetlands-in-a-changing-world-the-climate-benefits-of-wetlands

Every human on Earth has the right to equal treatment regardless of race, gender, religion or any other protected characteristic. Despite this human right, discrimination is widespread and causes serious harm to people all around the world. At Newcastle University, PhD candidate Bernardo de Mello has developed a taxonomy of discrimination to help human rights courts make more informed rulings in cases of discrimination.

The taxonomy also asks whether the discrimination is direct, cultural or structural, mirroring Johan Galtung’s theory of violence. “Galtung, a Norwegian sociologist, distinguished between three interconnected forms of violence: direct violence, structural violence and cultural violence,” says Bernardo. “The murder of George Floyd provides a powerful illustration of how these forms can interact.”

In the summer of 2020, George Floyd, a 46-year-old Black man, was murdered by a police officer in Minneapolis. “The physical force used against Floyd was an act of direct violence,” says Bernardo. “However, the event did not occur in a social vacuum.” Instead, it took place within a broader history of racial inequality in policing and the criminal justice system.

“Black communities in the US have faced disproportionate surveillance, arrest, imprisonment and police violence,” explains Bernardo. “These patterns are examples of structural violence because they are connected to the operation of institutions rather than an individual.”

Cultural violence embedded in American life made this direct and structural violence possible. “It can be seen in racist stereotypes that portray Black men as threatening or dangerous,” says Bernardo. “Such stereotypes can influence how police officers, members of the public and institutions interpret behaviour, and they may also be used to excuse excessive force or to treat violence against Black people as less serious.”

In many cases, these three forms of violence reinforce each other. Cultural stereotypes help legitimise unequal systems, and those structures place certain communities at greater risk of direct violence. “Galtung’s theory supports my taxonomy because discrimination has a similar structure,” says Bernardo. “Some discrimination is direct and visible, such as a person being refused a job because of their race. Other forms are embedded in institutions, such as recruitment systems that repeatedly exclude certain communities. And cultural attitudes may be used to explain or justify that exclusion.”

By drawing on Galtung’s theory, Bernardo’s taxonomy prompts judges to ask not only who acted and what happened, but also what structures made the harm more likely and what ideas made it appear acceptable. “A judge who decides not to recognise an intersectional or structural dimension of discrimination should at least explain why,” says Bernardo. “Ultimately, I want the taxonomy to make it harder for legally inconvenient parts of a person’s experience to disappear.”

Bernardo de Mello

PhD candidate, Newcastle law School, Newcastle University

Field of research: Human rights law

Research project: Developing a new taxonomy of discrimination

About human rights law

“Human rights law deals with some of the most important questions a society can ask,” says Bernardo. “How should power be limited? What does every person need to live with dignity? How should societies respond when their laws or institutions exclude certain people?” To answer these questions, researchers and lawyers draw on information from a wide range of fields including philosophy, sociology, political theory, peace studies, history, feminist theory, critical race theory and decolonial thought.

“This is an exciting field because it connects abstract principles with people’s everyday lives,” says Bernardo. “A debate about equality may affect whether someone can attend school, form a family, access healthcare, participate in politics or remain safely in their home.” Progress is often slow, and research cannot transform society on its own, but advancing on a career in this field gives you the opportunity to play your part in the struggle for justice.

Looking to the future, human rights law research will have a major role to play in some of modern society’s most pressing issues. Artificial intelligence will raise questions about surveillance, privacy and algorithmic discrimination, climate change will create challenges involving displacement, access to food and water, and the rights of future generations, and researchers will continue to examine migration, war, authoritarianism, economic inequality, racism, gender-based violence, Indigenous rights and the criminalisation of LGBTQ+ people.

“Young researchers should not assume that every important question has already been answered,” says Bernardo. “Some of the most valuable work begins by noticing that the existing question has been framed incorrectly.”

Pathway from school to human rights law

Many subjects can help prepare you for work in human rights law. “Begin broadly,” says Bernardo. “Learn about history, politics and society as well as law.” Other subjects can also be useful such as philosophy, literature, geography, economics and languages.

“At university, studying law, politics, international relations, sociology, anthropology, philosophy, history, development studies or criminology can lead to human rights law,” says Bernardo. “Scientific and technical subjects are also increasingly relevant to human rights questions involving health, climate change and technology.”

Seek practical experience by joining debating clubs, taking part in a Model United Nations or volunteering with local charities, community organisations and legal clinics.

Explore careers in human rights law

Careers in this field include legal practice, academic research, teaching, diplomacy, journalism and humanitarian work. “Human rights knowledge is relevant in areas such as healthcare, technology, environmental protection, and equality and diversity,” says Bernardo. “A person does not need the job title ‘human rights lawyer’ to contribute to human rights.”

University human rights centres, the Oxford Human Rights Hub, legal blogs and recorded public lectures can introduce you to current debates.

“Start with local issues,” says Bernardo. “Human rights are present in schools, workplaces, neighbourhoods and local government. A small, responsible role in a community project can teach more than an impressive title with no meaningful work behind it.”

Meet Bernardo

As a teenager, I was always drawn to history, politics and questions about why societies develop in the way they do. I wanted to understand how past events continue to shape the present, especially in relation to inequality, power and the treatment of different groups. That interest led me to study history before I studied law, which taught me to look beyond individual events and think about the wider social, political and cultural forces behind them. It also showed me that many injustices do not appear suddenly; they are often connected to patterns that have developed over a long period of time.

My perspective as a Brazilian lawyer and a researcher from the Global South has shaped this project. Feminist, queer, decolonial and critical race scholarship taught me to question legal concepts presented as neutral or universal. These perspectives encourage us to ask whose experiences shaped a legal category, whose experiences are excluded and how the category might be improved.

The most rewarding part of my work is turning a highly theoretical argument into a practical tool. The taxonomy is not intended only to describe a problem. It is meant to help people reason about discrimination more carefully.

I am motivated by the fact that injustice can become invisible when the concepts used to describe it are inadequate. Courts may genuinely intend to protect human rights while still relying on categories that exclude important experiences. Improving those categories is therefore not a purely academic exercise. It affects whose suffering is recognised, whose evidence is believed and which changes an institution is required to make.

Curiosity is essential. Ask why a rule exists, who benefits from it and whose experience might be missing. Persistence is also important. Research involves rejected arguments, extensive revisions and periods when the solution is unclear. Progress often comes from returning to a problem several times rather than immediately finding the answer.

I also draw on empathy, independence and attention to language. A small difference in terminology can determine whether a person’s experience becomes legally visible. Feminist, queer and decolonial approaches have taught me to examine how knowledge is produced and whose perspectives are treated as authoritative.

Bernardo’s top tips

1. Practise explaining complicated ideas in ordinary language. Clear communication is one of the most valuable skills in human rights work.

2. Listen to affected communities. Human rights work should not be based on the assumption that researchers or lawyers always know what other people need.

3. Learn from criticism. Having an argument questioned is not the same as failing. It is part of making the argument stronger.

4. Rest is part of doing good research. Taking time away from a problem often makes it easier to see the solution when you return to it.

Do you have a question for Bernardo?
Write it in the comments box below and he will get back to you. (Remember, researchers are very busy people, so you may have to wait a few days.)

Learn about the systemic discrimination that Indigenous women and girls face:

futurumcareers.com/challenging-the-legacy-of-colonialism-advocating-for-the-rights-of-indigenous-women-and-girls-in-canada

Fossils contain valuable clues about what organisms living hundreds of millions of years ago looked like and the environments they inhabited. However, revealing their secrets can be tricky. At the University of São Paulo in Brazil, Dr Gabriel Ladeira Osés is using an array of advanced techniques to study fossils, with each method revealing different pieces of the puzzle. He is particularly interested in soft-tissue preservation and early biomineralised animals – the first organisms to produce mineral-built body parts.

Meet Gabriel

As a teenager, I was interested in palaeontology and archaeology. I started with the most popular topics, but with time I discovered a whole new world of possibilities. I learnt that palaeontology can involve working with technology to get more information from samples, which opens new approaches and allows us to answer new questions and push forward the frontiers of knowledge.

I remember being extremely curious about geological cycles – how sedimentary rocks formed in ancient environments, what these environments looked like, how organisms evolved and how fossils formed. The beautiful mystery of the deepness of geological time and the vast information about past life that is recorded in rocks have always motivated me.

I was also inspired by my grandmother (who had a strong connection to nature), my father (a very curious biologist) and my mother (who, together with my father, took my brothers and me for visits to museums and parks). I used to dig for snail shells in my grandmother’s garden, and once my classmates and I built a replica of the famous hominid Lucy for a school science fair!

Ediacaran (635-539 million years ago) and Cambrian (539- 485 million years ago) fossils have always intrigued me – they provide information about a completely different world compared to modern ecosystems. I have always been amazed by fossils with preserved soft tissues, wondering how they formed and what biological information they bring. Through my work, I hope to uncover the environmental conditions for soft-tissue preservation in these periods.

When I’m not working, I really enjoy outdoor activities, like hiking and riding a bicycle. This helps me connect to nature, which is inspiring because my job is trying to understand it! I also enjoy watching TV shows and documentaries and reading books with mysterious and investigative storylines.

Gabriel’s top tips

To pursue a career in palaeontology you need to be curious, work hard with consistency, work collaboratively with colleagues, develop creativity, and have courage to overcome troubles and never give up! Something that also helps is to imagine yourself in the future and think, “What will I be doing in the next 10 years or so? Will I be hunting fossils and making new discoveries?”

Do you have a question for Gabriel?
Write it in the comments box below and he will get back to you. (Remember, researchers are very busy people, so you may have to wait a few days.)

Discover how other palaeontologists are using modern technology to uncover the secrets of ancient fossils:

futurumcareers.com/can-modern-technology-uncover-the-secrets-of-evolution

Within the first few weeks of pregnancy, mothers begin passing an essential nutrient called folate to their developing baby. However, in some pregnancies, the baby doesn’t receive enough folate, which can lead to developmental disorders. At Santa Barbara City College in the US, neuroscientist Dr George Ayoub is investigating how a lack of folate during pregnancy can lead to neurodevelopmental conditions such as spina bifida and possibly autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

When folate travels through folate receptor alpha, it concentrates in the placenta at three times the level found in the mother’s blood. However, reduced folate carrier can only transport enough folate into the placenta to match the mother’s folate level. This means that when leucovorin is used as a folate supplement, it needs to be taken at higher doses than folic acid.

How can leucovorin help?

Although less folate can pass through reduced folate carrier than folate receptor alpha, recent evidence suggests that leucovorin can have a positive impact on early brain development. In a randomised control trial, FRAA-positive pregnant women were given either leucovorin or folic acid supplements. “The results showed that leucovorin supplementation was linked to markedly lower autism incidence and reduced ASD symptom severity in children,” says George. “60% of the folic acid pregnancies resulted in ASD children, compared to just 10% of the leucovorin pregnancies.”

Leucovorin can also improve symptoms for ASD children with FRAA. “In this group, leucovorin treatment has been shown to meaningfully improve symptoms related to social communication,” says George. “However, while leucovorin can help some ASD children with folate-pathway issues, it is not a ‘cure’, and it isn’t universally effective, helping about half the ASD children in the trials.”

What are the next steps in George’s research?

Although recent studies have had encouraging results, more research into the effects of leucovorin is needed. “We still don’t know who might respond to leucovorin, and there is a need for larger randomised controlled trials, both to identify if leucovorin is optimal for all FRAA-positive pregnancies, and also for FRAA-positive autism cases,” explains George.

It is an exciting time to be in this field of work, with leucovorin being approved by the US Food and Drug Administration in early 2026 to treat a genetic form of folate deficiency. “There is also research on developing non-invasive tests that can screen for FRAA-related risks in pregnancy and infancy,” says George. “These tests are important because we know that early provision of the needed folate can reduce developmental risks before symptoms even emerge.

Dr George Ayoub

Department of Psychology, Santa Barbara City College, USA

Field of research: Neuroscience; neurodevelopment

Research project: Investigating the links between folate and autism spectrum disorder

Funder: Self-funded

About neuroscience

Neuroscience is an interdisciplinary field that combines physics, biology, psychology and philosophy to investigate the brain and the nervous system. “I like neuroscience for a number of reasons; the foremost being that the questions we study are fascinating because they are about who we are as people,” says George. Neuroscientists might study neurodevelopmental conditions to understand how they start, explore and come up with treatments for neurodegenerative diseases such as dementia, look into the underlying principles of our nervous systems, or investigate the processes behind our thoughts, feelings and actions.

“Neuroscience allows me to explore topics from philosophy using tools from the physical sciences,” explains George. “For example, I use cellular or molecular tools and clinical studies to help me think about why things are the way they are, and what that tells us.” Neuroscience is an exciting and ever-changing field. “The ways we can do experiments are always changing, which often creates new questions, new ways of seeing things and new answers, too,” says George.

A day in the life of a neuroscientist can be quite varied. “How I spend my time changes over the course of the year,” says George. “My typical day during the semester includes teaching classes, interacting with students, communicating with scientific colleagues, writing research papers and reading.”

Pathway from school to neuroscience

During high school, take classes in biology, chemistry and physics. If you’re able to, take a psychology or philosophy course as well.

“During college, I majored in physics and minored in philosophy,” says George. “When I took a neuroscience course, I loved seeing how these two areas combined, and it showed me that my knowledge of physics could be used to improve people’s health.”

At university, consider a bachelor’s degree in neuroscience, psychology or biology. “If you are interested in the sciences, take a range of science courses,” says George. “Each will have value for you and help you learn how to think from different perspectives.”

After your bachelor’s degree, you will need to complete a PhD if you want to work in research.

Explore careers in neuroscience

“Try to read some research papers and summaries of current research,” suggests George. “Use PubMed Central to find papers that interest you – these may introduce you to new ideas.”

“When reading about science research, try to avoid click-bait articles and instead choose articles that explain things well,” says George. “You will quickly learn to spot the difference and you’ll be able to learn so much more!”

This Stanford Report article contains interviews from neuroscience students, PhD candidates and the chair of the department on what they enjoy about their research.

The Franklin Institute has produced a suite of resources as part of their Neuroscience and Society Curriculum.

Meet George

As a teenager, I spent my time reading, playing hockey and soccer, and figuring out how things worked. I would fix things by taking them apart and puzzling through what wasn’t working to find a solution. I also enjoyed sciences, especially physics.

I love the challenge of explaining complex information in a way that my students understand – especially when they then find it exciting. I like to think of answers to ‘why’ question, and that applies to my teaching and to my research. I’ve learned that to be a good teacher I need to know something well, to be able to see it from many vantage points and continually ask ‘why’.

I enjoy working in neuroscience because it is central to who we are, so understanding how and why each aspect works is exciting. Secondly, I always focus on nutrition and health in my research, not only because I am curious, but also because I may be able to help others with health issues.

Always being curious has helped me lead a successful career. I never rush to conclusions, I remain sceptical about new theories until there is overwhelming evidence to support them, and I’m open to different ways of looking at things – recognising that how I see something is only one view. When we can hear from a wide variety of views, we can be more successful in coming up with ideas that may prove useful.

Outside of my work, I make time to exercise – which is when I usually have time to think through things that I’m reading or writing. It is a sort of prayer/meditation time for me. Preparing meals also keeps me grounded, and I love to explore nature and volunteer with charities. Although the charities change over time, it is always rewarding to see my efforts help others.

George’s top tips

1. Stay curious. There is always a push to conform to how ‘everyone else’ is viewing things, but if you stay curious you are much more likely to find a new perspective.

2. Keep reading. I read science articles from a wide variety of fields in my down time. This helps me find new ways of looking at things.

3. Choose the right teacher. When you like someone’s teaching style, take their classes or work with their research. We always gain more when we resonate with the person. And the opposite is true as well. If a teacher is difficult for you, even if they may be famous, that’s not a good fit. Try to work with people you feel connected to.

Do you have a question for George?
Write it in the comments box below and he will get back to you. (Remember, researchers are very busy people, so you may have to wait a few days.)

Learn about how vitamin deficiencies can affect development:

futurumcareers.com/how-do-rare-genetic-disorders-affect-vitamin-b12-metabolism-and-embryonic-development

Industrial processes often generate wastewater that is contaminated with pollutants such as heavy metals and toxic chemicals. Before this water can be released into the surrounding environment, it must be treated to remove these harmful substances. At Universidad de Guadalajara in Mexico, Dr Ruben Octavio Munoz Garcia, Dr Diego Alberto Lomeli Rosales and Dr Juan Carlos Sanchez Díaz are developing innovative hydrogels that can remove toxic heavy metals from wastewater.

All over the world, our waters are being polluted by toxic heavy metals that pose a threat both to aquatic ecosystems and human health. Many industries, such as chemical manufacturing and textile production, release wastewater into their surrounding environments and local sewage systems. Although there are regulations designed to prevent this pollution, many factories and manufacturing plants still release untreated wastewater that is full of heavy metals.

“This wastewater can pollute soil and groundwater and contaminate rivers and lakes,” says Dr Ruben Octavio Munoz Garcia from Universidad de Guadalajara. “In some cases, heavy metals have even been found in fish.” Drinking contaminated water and eating contaminated fish can cause serious health problems, including kidney and blood diseases.

Alongside his colleagues Dr Diego Alberto Lomeli Rosales and Dr Juan Carlos Sanchez Díaz, Ruben is improving a technique for removing heavy metals from contaminated wastewater.

How to treat industrial wastewater

“Current methods for treating industrial wastewater are often expensive, generate secondary waste and require large amounts of energy or chemicals,” says Diego. “Many of these methods are also not particularly effective at removing low concentrations of heavy metals.”

To overcome these limitations, Ruben, Diego and Juan are developing a new wastewater treatment technique based on hydrogels – three-dimensional networks of polymers that can hold large amounts of water while maintaining their structural integrity. “To remove heavy metals from wastewater, hydrogels are placed in a solution containing heavy metal ions,” explains Juan. “After a short period of time, the swollen hydrogel is taken out of the solution, removing the adsorbed heavy metals from the water.”

How hydrogels work

“The ability of hydrogels to adsorb heavy metal ions depends on the number of active binding sites,” explains Ruben. “Increasing the number of these binding sites enhances the adsorption potential of the hydrogel.” Another way to make hydrogels more effective is to improve their structural integrity. This can be done by a process known as crosslinking.

“Crosslinking is the chemical process in which two or more polymer chains are bonded together,” explains Diego. “The structural integrity of the hydrogel is provided by the three-dimensional polymer network formed through crosslinking.” Without crosslinking, the polymer chains would simply dissolve in the water. By bonding the polymers together, they form interconnected networks that swell in water rather than dissolving.

The amount of crosslinking in a hydrogel determines how stable it is and how much water it can adsorb. A hydrogel with lots of crosslinking will be structurally stable but able to hold less water. On the other hand, a hydrogel with less crosslinking will be able to hold much more water, but is more likely to deform and release the captured water. Ruben, Diego and Juan are investigating new methods for creating hydrogels that can adsorb large amounts of water while maintaining their structural integrity.

How to make hydrogels more effective

“We incorporated cellulose into our hydrogels to improve their structural stability during the adsorption process,” says Juan. “It acts as a reinforcing component, helping the hydrogel retain its shape during adsorption.” Cellulose is the structural component of plant cell walls and is the most abundant natural polymer in the world, making it an affordable and sustainable material.

Cellulose has a highly organised molecular structure and tight internal hydrogen bonds, making it incredibly tough and durable. However, this toughness also means that it cannot dissolve in water or organic solvents, making it difficult to incorporate into hydrogels. To overcome this problem, Ruben, Diego and Juan used a modified form of cellulose called hydroxypropylcellulose in their hydrogels.

Turning cellulose into hydroxypropylcellulose involves breaking just enough of its hydrogen bonds to make it soluble in water and solvents while maintaining some of its structural integrity. This solubility allows it to easily graft onto the polymer chains that make up a hydrogel, transferring its structural strength to the hydrogel. Hydroxypropylcellulose allows the hydrogel to maintain its structure in industrial treatment pumps where there is high water pressure and rapid flow.

How a hydrogel captures heavy metals

Ruben, Diego and Juan used a polymerised form of acrylic acid as the backbone of their hydrogel. “We converted the carboxylic acid groups on these polymers into negatively charged carboxylate groups by treating them with sodium hydroxide solutions,” explains Ruben. “These carboxylate groups act like tiny molecular claws, surrounding and tightly holding heavy metal ions.”

The combination of carboxylate traps and hydroxypropylcellulose reinforcement made the team’s hydrogel particularly efficient. “In our lab, we performed adsorption tests on our hydrogel in a solution containing nickel ions,” says Diego. “Our hydrogel decontaminated the green nickel solution after a quick adsorption process, turning green itself in the process.” The hydrogel adsorbed up to 80% of the nickel ions present in the solution, showing how effectively it can remove heavy metals from water.

Ruben, Diego and Juan hope that their innovative hydrogels will allow industries to clean their wastewater more effectively and at a lower cost, protecting surrounding environments, local wildlife and nearby communities.

Dr Ruben Octavio Munoz Garcia

Associate Professor, Department of Chemistry

Dr Diego Alberto Lomeli Rosales

Associate Professor, Department of Chemistry

Dr Juan Carlos Sanchez Díaz

Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering

Fields of research: Chemistry; hydrogels

Research paper: A Poly(Acrylic Acid)-Based Hydrogel Crosslinked with Hydroxypropylcellulose as a Clarifying Agent in Nickel(II) Solutions. (2025) doi: 10.3390/gels11070560

Funder: Universidad de Guadalajara (PROSNII-2026)

Do you have a question for Ruben, Diego or Juan?
Write it in the comments box below and they will get back to you. (Remember, researchers are very busy people, so you may have to wait a few days.)

Learn about how pollutants can affect aquatic ecosystems:

futurumcareers.com/how-do-organic-micropollutants-affect-fish