Every human on Earth has the right to equal treatment regardless of race, gender, religion or any other protected characteristic. Despite this human right, discrimination is widespread and causes serious harm to people all around the world. At Newcastle University, PhD candidate Bernardo de Mello has developed a taxonomy of discrimination to help human rights courts make more informed rulings in cases of discrimination.

The taxonomy also asks whether the discrimination is direct, cultural or structural, mirroring Johan Galtung’s theory of violence. “Galtung, a Norwegian sociologist, distinguished between three interconnected forms of violence: direct violence, structural violence and cultural violence,” says Bernardo. “The murder of George Floyd provides a powerful illustration of how these forms can interact.”

In the summer of 2020, George Floyd, a 46-year-old Black man, was murdered by a police officer in Minneapolis. “The physical force used against Floyd was an act of direct violence,” says Bernardo. “However, the event did not occur in a social vacuum.” Instead, it took place within a broader history of racial inequality in policing and the criminal justice system.

“Black communities in the US have faced disproportionate surveillance, arrest, imprisonment and police violence,” explains Bernardo. “These patterns are examples of structural violence because they are connected to the operation of institutions rather than an individual.”

Cultural violence embedded in American life made this direct and structural violence possible. “It can be seen in racist stereotypes that portray Black men as threatening or dangerous,” says Bernardo. “Such stereotypes can influence how police officers, members of the public and institutions interpret behaviour, and they may also be used to excuse excessive force or to treat violence against Black people as less serious.”

In many cases, these three forms of violence reinforce each other. Cultural stereotypes help legitimise unequal systems, and those structures place certain communities at greater risk of direct violence. “Galtung’s theory supports my taxonomy because discrimination has a similar structure,” says Bernardo. “Some discrimination is direct and visible, such as a person being refused a job because of their race. Other forms are embedded in institutions, such as recruitment systems that repeatedly exclude certain communities. And cultural attitudes may be used to explain or justify that exclusion.”

By drawing on Galtung’s theory, Bernardo’s taxonomy prompts judges to ask not only who acted and what happened, but also what structures made the harm more likely and what ideas made it appear acceptable. “A judge who decides not to recognise an intersectional or structural dimension of discrimination should at least explain why,” says Bernardo. “Ultimately, I want the taxonomy to make it harder for legally inconvenient parts of a person’s experience to disappear.”

Bernardo de Mello

PhD candidate, Newcastle law School, Newcastle University

Field of research: Human rights law

Research project: Developing a new taxonomy of discrimination

About human rights law

“Human rights law deals with some of the most important questions a society can ask,” says Bernardo. “How should power be limited? What does every person need to live with dignity? How should societies respond when their laws or institutions exclude certain people?” To answer these questions, researchers and lawyers draw on information from a wide range of fields including philosophy, sociology, political theory, peace studies, history, feminist theory, critical race theory and decolonial thought.

“This is an exciting field because it connects abstract principles with people’s everyday lives,” says Bernardo. “A debate about equality may affect whether someone can attend school, form a family, access healthcare, participate in politics or remain safely in their home.” Progress is often slow, and research cannot transform society on its own, but advancing on a career in this field gives you the opportunity to play your part in the struggle for justice.

Looking to the future, human rights law research will have a major role to play in some of modern society’s most pressing issues. Artificial intelligence will raise questions about surveillance, privacy and algorithmic discrimination, climate change will create challenges involving displacement, access to food and water, and the rights of future generations, and researchers will continue to examine migration, war, authoritarianism, economic inequality, racism, gender-based violence, Indigenous rights and the criminalisation of LGBTQ+ people.

“Young researchers should not assume that every important question has already been answered,” says Bernardo. “Some of the most valuable work begins by noticing that the existing question has been framed incorrectly.”

Pathway from school to human rights law

Many subjects can help prepare you for work in human rights law. “Begin broadly,” says Bernardo. “Learn about history, politics and society as well as law.” Other subjects can also be useful such as philosophy, literature, geography, economics and languages.

“At university, studying law, politics, international relations, sociology, anthropology, philosophy, history, development studies or criminology can lead to human rights law,” says Bernardo. “Scientific and technical subjects are also increasingly relevant to human rights questions involving health, climate change and technology.”

Seek practical experience by joining debating clubs, taking part in a Model United Nations or volunteering with local charities, community organisations and legal clinics.

Explore careers in human rights law

Careers in this field include legal practice, academic research, teaching, diplomacy, journalism and humanitarian work. “Human rights knowledge is relevant in areas such as healthcare, technology, environmental protection, and equality and diversity,” says Bernardo. “A person does not need the job title ‘human rights lawyer’ to contribute to human rights.”

University human rights centres, the Oxford Human Rights Hub, legal blogs and recorded public lectures can introduce you to current debates.

“Start with local issues,” says Bernardo. “Human rights are present in schools, workplaces, neighbourhoods and local government. A small, responsible role in a community project can teach more than an impressive title with no meaningful work behind it.”

Meet Bernardo

As a teenager, I was always drawn to history, politics and questions about why societies develop in the way they do. I wanted to understand how past events continue to shape the present, especially in relation to inequality, power and the treatment of different groups. That interest led me to study history before I studied law, which taught me to look beyond individual events and think about the wider social, political and cultural forces behind them. It also showed me that many injustices do not appear suddenly; they are often connected to patterns that have developed over a long period of time.

My perspective as a Brazilian lawyer and a researcher from the Global South has shaped this project. Feminist, queer, decolonial and critical race scholarship taught me to question legal concepts presented as neutral or universal. These perspectives encourage us to ask whose experiences shaped a legal category, whose experiences are excluded and how the category might be improved.

The most rewarding part of my work is turning a highly theoretical argument into a practical tool. The taxonomy is not intended only to describe a problem. It is meant to help people reason about discrimination more carefully.

I am motivated by the fact that injustice can become invisible when the concepts used to describe it are inadequate. Courts may genuinely intend to protect human rights while still relying on categories that exclude important experiences. Improving those categories is therefore not a purely academic exercise. It affects whose suffering is recognised, whose evidence is believed and which changes an institution is required to make.

Curiosity is essential. Ask why a rule exists, who benefits from it and whose experience might be missing. Persistence is also important. Research involves rejected arguments, extensive revisions and periods when the solution is unclear. Progress often comes from returning to a problem several times rather than immediately finding the answer.

I also draw on empathy, independence and attention to language. A small difference in terminology can determine whether a person’s experience becomes legally visible. Feminist, queer and decolonial approaches have taught me to examine how knowledge is produced and whose perspectives are treated as authoritative.

Bernardo’s top tips

1. Practise explaining complicated ideas in ordinary language. Clear communication is one of the most valuable skills in human rights work.

2. Listen to affected communities. Human rights work should not be based on the assumption that researchers or lawyers always know what other people need.

3. Learn from criticism. Having an argument questioned is not the same as failing. It is part of making the argument stronger.

4. Rest is part of doing good research. Taking time away from a problem often makes it easier to see the solution when you return to it.

Do you have a question for Bernardo?
Write it in the comments box below and he will get back to you. (Remember, researchers are very busy people, so you may have to wait a few days.)

Learn about the systemic discrimination that Indigenous women and girls face:

futurumcareers.com/challenging-the-legacy-of-colonialism-advocating-for-the-rights-of-indigenous-women-and-girls-in-canada

Fossils contain valuable clues about what organisms living hundreds of millions of years ago looked like and the environments they inhabited. However, revealing their secrets can be tricky. At the University of São Paulo in Brazil, Dr Gabriel Ladeira Osés is using an array of advanced techniques to study fossils, with each method revealing different pieces of the puzzle. He is particularly interested in soft-tissue preservation and early biomineralised animals – the first organisms to produce mineral-built body parts.

Meet Gabriel

As a teenager, I was interested in palaeontology and archaeology. I started with the most popular topics, but with time I discovered a whole new world of possibilities. I learnt that palaeontology can involve working with technology to get more information from samples, which opens new approaches and allows us to answer new questions and push forward the frontiers of knowledge.

I remember being extremely curious about geological cycles – how sedimentary rocks formed in ancient environments, what these environments looked like, how organisms evolved and how fossils formed. The beautiful mystery of the deepness of geological time and the vast information about past life that is recorded in rocks have always motivated me.

I was also inspired by my grandmother (who had a strong connection to nature), my father (a very curious biologist) and my mother (who, together with my father, took my brothers and me for visits to museums and parks). I used to dig for snail shells in my grandmother’s garden, and once my classmates and I built a replica of the famous hominid Lucy for a school science fair!

Ediacaran (635-539 million years ago) and Cambrian (539- 485 million years ago) fossils have always intrigued me – they provide information about a completely different world compared to modern ecosystems. I have always been amazed by fossils with preserved soft tissues, wondering how they formed and what biological information they bring. Through my work, I hope to uncover the environmental conditions for soft-tissue preservation in these periods.

When I’m not working, I really enjoy outdoor activities, like hiking and riding a bicycle. This helps me connect to nature, which is inspiring because my job is trying to understand it! I also enjoy watching TV shows and documentaries and reading books with mysterious and investigative storylines.

Gabriel’s top tips

To pursue a career in palaeontology you need to be curious, work hard with consistency, work collaboratively with colleagues, develop creativity, and have courage to overcome troubles and never give up! Something that also helps is to imagine yourself in the future and think, “What will I be doing in the next 10 years or so? Will I be hunting fossils and making new discoveries?”

Do you have a question for Gabriel?
Write it in the comments box below and he will get back to you. (Remember, researchers are very busy people, so you may have to wait a few days.)

Discover how other palaeontologists are using modern technology to uncover the secrets of ancient fossils:

futurumcareers.com/can-modern-technology-uncover-the-secrets-of-evolution

Within the first few weeks of pregnancy, mothers begin passing an essential nutrient called folate to their developing baby. However, in some pregnancies, the baby doesn’t receive enough folate, which can lead to developmental disorders. At Santa Barbara City College in the US, neuroscientist Dr George Ayoub is investigating how a lack of folate during pregnancy can lead to neurodevelopmental conditions such as spina bifida and possibly autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

When folate travels through folate receptor alpha, it concentrates in the placenta at three times the level found in the mother’s blood. However, reduced folate carrier can only transport enough folate into the placenta to match the mother’s folate level. This means that when leucovorin is used as a folate supplement, it needs to be taken at higher doses than folic acid.

How can leucovorin help?

Although less folate can pass through reduced folate carrier than folate receptor alpha, recent evidence suggests that leucovorin can have a positive impact on early brain development. In a randomised control trial, FRAA-positive pregnant women were given either leucovorin or folic acid supplements. “The results showed that leucovorin supplementation was linked to markedly lower autism incidence and reduced ASD symptom severity in children,” says George. “60% of the folic acid pregnancies resulted in ASD children, compared to just 10% of the leucovorin pregnancies.”

Leucovorin can also improve symptoms for ASD children with FRAA. “In this group, leucovorin treatment has been shown to meaningfully improve symptoms related to social communication,” says George. “However, while leucovorin can help some ASD children with folate-pathway issues, it is not a ‘cure’, and it isn’t universally effective, helping about half the ASD children in the trials.”

What are the next steps in George’s research?

Although recent studies have had encouraging results, more research into the effects of leucovorin is needed. “We still don’t know who might respond to leucovorin, and there is a need for larger randomised controlled trials, both to identify if leucovorin is optimal for all FRAA-positive pregnancies, and also for FRAA-positive autism cases,” explains George.

It is an exciting time to be in this field of work, with leucovorin being approved by the US Food and Drug Administration in early 2026 to treat a genetic form of folate deficiency. “There is also research on developing non-invasive tests that can screen for FRAA-related risks in pregnancy and infancy,” says George. “These tests are important because we know that early provision of the needed folate can reduce developmental risks before symptoms even emerge.

Dr George Ayoub

Department of Psychology, Santa Barbara City College, USA

Field of research: Neuroscience; neurodevelopment

Research project: Investigating the links between folate and autism spectrum disorder

Funder: Self-funded

About neuroscience

Neuroscience is an interdisciplinary field that combines physics, biology, psychology and philosophy to investigate the brain and the nervous system. “I like neuroscience for a number of reasons; the foremost being that the questions we study are fascinating because they are about who we are as people,” says George. Neuroscientists might study neurodevelopmental conditions to understand how they start, explore and come up with treatments for neurodegenerative diseases such as dementia, look into the underlying principles of our nervous systems, or investigate the processes behind our thoughts, feelings and actions.

“Neuroscience allows me to explore topics from philosophy using tools from the physical sciences,” explains George. “For example, I use cellular or molecular tools and clinical studies to help me think about why things are the way they are, and what that tells us.” Neuroscience is an exciting and ever-changing field. “The ways we can do experiments are always changing, which often creates new questions, new ways of seeing things and new answers, too,” says George.

A day in the life of a neuroscientist can be quite varied. “How I spend my time changes over the course of the year,” says George. “My typical day during the semester includes teaching classes, interacting with students, communicating with scientific colleagues, writing research papers and reading.”

Pathway from school to neuroscience

During high school, take classes in biology, chemistry and physics. If you’re able to, take a psychology or philosophy course as well.

“During college, I majored in physics and minored in philosophy,” says George. “When I took a neuroscience course, I loved seeing how these two areas combined, and it showed me that my knowledge of physics could be used to improve people’s health.”

At university, consider a bachelor’s degree in neuroscience, psychology or biology. “If you are interested in the sciences, take a range of science courses,” says George. “Each will have value for you and help you learn how to think from different perspectives.”

After your bachelor’s degree, you will need to complete a PhD if you want to work in research.

Explore careers in neuroscience

“Try to read some research papers and summaries of current research,” suggests George. “Use PubMed Central to find papers that interest you – these may introduce you to new ideas.”

“When reading about science research, try to avoid click-bait articles and instead choose articles that explain things well,” says George. “You will quickly learn to spot the difference and you’ll be able to learn so much more!”

This Stanford Report article contains interviews from neuroscience students, PhD candidates and the chair of the department on what they enjoy about their research.

The Franklin Institute has produced a suite of resources as part of their Neuroscience and Society Curriculum.

Meet George

As a teenager, I spent my time reading, playing hockey and soccer, and figuring out how things worked. I would fix things by taking them apart and puzzling through what wasn’t working to find a solution. I also enjoyed sciences, especially physics.

I love the challenge of explaining complex information in a way that my students understand – especially when they then find it exciting. I like to think of answers to ‘why’ question, and that applies to my teaching and to my research. I’ve learned that to be a good teacher I need to know something well, to be able to see it from many vantage points and continually ask ‘why’.

I enjoy working in neuroscience because it is central to who we are, so understanding how and why each aspect works is exciting. Secondly, I always focus on nutrition and health in my research, not only because I am curious, but also because I may be able to help others with health issues.

Always being curious has helped me lead a successful career. I never rush to conclusions, I remain sceptical about new theories until there is overwhelming evidence to support them, and I’m open to different ways of looking at things – recognising that how I see something is only one view. When we can hear from a wide variety of views, we can be more successful in coming up with ideas that may prove useful.

Outside of my work, I make time to exercise – which is when I usually have time to think through things that I’m reading or writing. It is a sort of prayer/meditation time for me. Preparing meals also keeps me grounded, and I love to explore nature and volunteer with charities. Although the charities change over time, it is always rewarding to see my efforts help others.

George’s top tips

1. Stay curious. There is always a push to conform to how ‘everyone else’ is viewing things, but if you stay curious you are much more likely to find a new perspective.

2. Keep reading. I read science articles from a wide variety of fields in my down time. This helps me find new ways of looking at things.

3. Choose the right teacher. When you like someone’s teaching style, take their classes or work with their research. We always gain more when we resonate with the person. And the opposite is true as well. If a teacher is difficult for you, even if they may be famous, that’s not a good fit. Try to work with people you feel connected to.

Do you have a question for George?
Write it in the comments box below and he will get back to you. (Remember, researchers are very busy people, so you may have to wait a few days.)

Learn about how vitamin deficiencies can affect development:

futurumcareers.com/how-do-rare-genetic-disorders-affect-vitamin-b12-metabolism-and-embryonic-development

Industrial processes often generate wastewater that is contaminated with pollutants such as heavy metals and toxic chemicals. Before this water can be released into the surrounding environment, it must be treated to remove these harmful substances. At Universidad de Guadalajara in Mexico, Dr Ruben Octavio Munoz Garcia, Dr Diego Alberto Lomeli Rosales and Dr Juan Carlos Sanchez Díaz are developing innovative hydrogels that can remove toxic heavy metals from wastewater.

All over the world, our waters are being polluted by toxic heavy metals that pose a threat both to aquatic ecosystems and human health. Many industries, such as chemical manufacturing and textile production, release wastewater into their surrounding environments and local sewage systems. Although there are regulations designed to prevent this pollution, many factories and manufacturing plants still release untreated wastewater that is full of heavy metals.

“This wastewater can pollute soil and groundwater and contaminate rivers and lakes,” says Dr Ruben Octavio Munoz Garcia from Universidad de Guadalajara. “In some cases, heavy metals have even been found in fish.” Drinking contaminated water and eating contaminated fish can cause serious health problems, including kidney and blood diseases.

Alongside his colleagues Dr Diego Alberto Lomeli Rosales and Dr Juan Carlos Sanchez Díaz, Ruben is improving a technique for removing heavy metals from contaminated wastewater.

How to treat industrial wastewater

“Current methods for treating industrial wastewater are often expensive, generate secondary waste and require large amounts of energy or chemicals,” says Diego. “Many of these methods are also not particularly effective at removing low concentrations of heavy metals.”

To overcome these limitations, Ruben, Diego and Juan are developing a new wastewater treatment technique based on hydrogels – three-dimensional networks of polymers that can hold large amounts of water while maintaining their structural integrity. “To remove heavy metals from wastewater, hydrogels are placed in a solution containing heavy metal ions,” explains Juan. “After a short period of time, the swollen hydrogel is taken out of the solution, removing the adsorbed heavy metals from the water.”

How hydrogels work

“The ability of hydrogels to adsorb heavy metal ions depends on the number of active binding sites,” explains Ruben. “Increasing the number of these binding sites enhances the adsorption potential of the hydrogel.” Another way to make hydrogels more effective is to improve their structural integrity. This can be done by a process known as crosslinking.

“Crosslinking is the chemical process in which two or more polymer chains are bonded together,” explains Diego. “The structural integrity of the hydrogel is provided by the three-dimensional polymer network formed through crosslinking.” Without crosslinking, the polymer chains would simply dissolve in the water. By bonding the polymers together, they form interconnected networks that swell in water rather than dissolving.

The amount of crosslinking in a hydrogel determines how stable it is and how much water it can adsorb. A hydrogel with lots of crosslinking will be structurally stable but able to hold less water. On the other hand, a hydrogel with less crosslinking will be able to hold much more water, but is more likely to deform and release the captured water. Ruben, Diego and Juan are investigating new methods for creating hydrogels that can adsorb large amounts of water while maintaining their structural integrity.

How to make hydrogels more effective

“We incorporated cellulose into our hydrogels to improve their structural stability during the adsorption process,” says Juan. “It acts as a reinforcing component, helping the hydrogel retain its shape during adsorption.” Cellulose is the structural component of plant cell walls and is the most abundant natural polymer in the world, making it an affordable and sustainable material.

Cellulose has a highly organised molecular structure and tight internal hydrogen bonds, making it incredibly tough and durable. However, this toughness also means that it cannot dissolve in water or organic solvents, making it difficult to incorporate into hydrogels. To overcome this problem, Ruben, Diego and Juan used a modified form of cellulose called hydroxypropylcellulose in their hydrogels.

Turning cellulose into hydroxypropylcellulose involves breaking just enough of its hydrogen bonds to make it soluble in water and solvents while maintaining some of its structural integrity. This solubility allows it to easily graft onto the polymer chains that make up a hydrogel, transferring its structural strength to the hydrogel. Hydroxypropylcellulose allows the hydrogel to maintain its structure in industrial treatment pumps where there is high water pressure and rapid flow.

How a hydrogel captures heavy metals

Ruben, Diego and Juan used a polymerised form of acrylic acid as the backbone of their hydrogel. “We converted the carboxylic acid groups on these polymers into negatively charged carboxylate groups by treating them with sodium hydroxide solutions,” explains Ruben. “These carboxylate groups act like tiny molecular claws, surrounding and tightly holding heavy metal ions.”

The combination of carboxylate traps and hydroxypropylcellulose reinforcement made the team’s hydrogel particularly efficient. “In our lab, we performed adsorption tests on our hydrogel in a solution containing nickel ions,” says Diego. “Our hydrogel decontaminated the green nickel solution after a quick adsorption process, turning green itself in the process.” The hydrogel adsorbed up to 80% of the nickel ions present in the solution, showing how effectively it can remove heavy metals from water.

Ruben, Diego and Juan hope that their innovative hydrogels will allow industries to clean their wastewater more effectively and at a lower cost, protecting surrounding environments, local wildlife and nearby communities.

Dr Ruben Octavio Munoz Garcia

Associate Professor, Department of Chemistry

Dr Diego Alberto Lomeli Rosales

Associate Professor, Department of Chemistry

Dr Juan Carlos Sanchez Díaz

Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering

Fields of research: Chemistry; hydrogels

Research paper: A Poly(Acrylic Acid)-Based Hydrogel Crosslinked with Hydroxypropylcellulose as a Clarifying Agent in Nickel(II) Solutions. (2025) doi: 10.3390/gels11070560

Funder: Universidad de Guadalajara (PROSNII-2026)

Do you have a question for Ruben, Diego or Juan?
Write it in the comments box below and they will get back to you. (Remember, researchers are very busy people, so you may have to wait a few days.)

Learn about how pollutants can affect aquatic ecosystems:

futurumcareers.com/how-do-organic-micropollutants-affect-fish

Microalgae are tiny organisms with huge potential. As well as being found in food supplements and skincare products, they could provide us with new drugs and be a source of sustainable fuel. However, most commercially cultured microalgae species are not adapted to grow in the regions where biotechnology companies want to use them. Which is why, at Agroscope in Switzerland, Dr Daniel Kurpan is collecting native microalgae species and analysing them to determine how they could be used for biotechnological applications.

What has Daniel discovered?

“We have discovered that microalgae growth characteristics are extremely diverse and species-specific, which aligns with the huge physiological diversity of microalgae,” Daniel says. “We have also discovered that, despite the great diversity among microalgae, the amino acid profiles of most species are very similar.”

In a recent study, Daniel characterised the productivity and biochemical composition of seven native Swiss microalgae species from AlgoScope. He identified two species (C. saccharophilum and T. brasiliensis) that have great potential for being used as animal feed, as both have high productivity, protein levels and fatty acid content. “Based on our results, these species are good candidates for feed material,” he says. “However, scale-up feasibility analysis and animal acceptance tests need to be conducted before actual implementation.”

Through his research, Daniel is exposing the incredible potential of microalgae for solving some of the world’s most pressing problems, such as how to sustainably feed and power an ever-growing population. These amazing organisms will have an exciting role in the biotechnology of the future!

Dr Daniel Kurpan

Agroscope, Switzerland

Fields of research: Biotechnology; microbiology; phycology

Research paper: Isolation, characterization, and maintenance of native Swiss microalgae for biotechnological prospection. Kurpan et al. (2025) doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-10989-w

Funders: Lidl Switzerland; Swiss Federation

Do you have a question for Daniel?
Write it in the comments box below and he will get back to you. (Remember, researchers are very busy people, so you may have to wait a few days.)

Biologists are exploring how microalgae can improve the health of honeybees by acting as edible vaccines:

futurumcareers.com/can-microalgae-improve-honeybee-health

Many apple orchards in the northeastern US rely on wild bees for pollination. Orchards that are surrounded by a larger amount of forest tend to be visited by a more abundant and diverse community of pollinators. But does the type of forest surrounding an orchard matter as well? At Rutgers University, Joanna Greenwood is studying this question to learn more about the relationship between pollinators, orchards and their surrounding forests.

“We also determined the percentage of flowers that turn into fruits by marking branches on apple trees, counting the flowers and returning later to count the fruits,” says Joanna. “When the apples were ripe, we collected them and recorded their mass, whether they were approximately symmetrical, and how many seeds they had.” Counting the number of fruit allowed Joanna to figure out how many of the flowers were pollinated, and the number of seeds in each apple told her how well each flower was pollinated.

The results are in…

“Contrary to our expectations, we did not find a large difference in the diversity or visitation rate of wild bees in orchards surrounded by coniferous and deciduous forests,” says Joanna. However, she did find that orchards with higher wild bee diversity and visitation rates had apples with more seeds. “These apples were larger and more symmetrical, making them more valuable,” Joanna continues. “So, our results confirm that higher abundance and diversity of wild bees contributes to the production of higher-quality apples.”

Joanna is unsure why she didn’t find the results that she expected, so she will be doing more data analysis to dig a little deeper. “If we could repeat the study with more orchards, we may be able to better understand these relationships,” she says. “It is also likely that other variables – such as the amount of pesticide used in the orchards – affected our results.”

For the love of bees

“As crop pollinators, bees are critical for human wellbeing – but I find them fascinating in and of themselves; there are over 20,000 species of bees worldwide, and each one is unique and beautiful,” says Joanna. “My favourite part of my job is spending time outdoors collecting data, but I also love talking to people about my research and about bees in general.” Despite not finding the results that she expected, Joanna is excited to continue her investigation of the relationship between bees and orchards. When she’s in an orchard surrounded by sweet apples and buzzing insects, there’s really no place she’d rather bee.

Joanna Greenwood

PhD Student, Winfree Lab, Rutgers University, USA   

Fields of research: Ecology

Research project: Studying the effects of forest composition on pollinators and yield in adjacent apple orchards and linking forest management and crop production

Funder: United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), National Institute of Food and Agriculture, award number 2024-67011-42897

Do you have a question for Joanna?
Write it in the comments box below and she will get back to you. (Remember, researchers are very busy people, so you may have to wait a few days.)

Learn about how bees support agriculture:

futurumcareers.com/bringing-beekeeping-and-berry-farming-to-alberta

Conditions such as cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease can have devastating impacts on the lives of patients and their families. Unfortunately, they are often not diagnosed until far too late. That is why Dr Kiran K. Solingapuram Sai at Wake Forest University School of Medicine in the US is using positron emission tomography (PET) to improve early detection rates, support the development of new treatments and change patients’ lives.

Imaging impact

Ultimately, Kiran’s goal is to improve patients’ lives by finding new ways to detect diseases at earlier stages and by helping doctors choose treatments that are tailored to each individual. “If we can detect Alzheimer’s disease five or ten years before symptoms appear, that changes everything for patients and families,” explains Kiran. The same principle applies to diseases such as Parkinson’s, diabetes and cancer, where earlier detection can lead to better outcomes. “The work we are doing is opening up entirely new biological windows,” continues Kiran. “We are developing new radiotracers for neurological diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease and alcohol use disorder, and for cardiovascular diseases. We are developing new molecular imaging tools to make the invisible visible.”

Dr Kiran K. Solingapuram Sai

Professor, Department of Radiology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, USA

Field of research: Medical imaging

Research project: Imaging new markers for early detection of Alzheimer’s disease

Funder: US National Institutes of Health (NIH)

About medical imaging

Medical imaging allows us to see inside the body, helping doctors diagnose disease, monitor treatment and understand how our bodies work. As an area of medicine, it offers a huge range of opportunities, from developing new radiotracers and treatments to improving the sensitivity of scanners and building innovative AI tools to support the interpretation of images.

“What makes this field exciting is that it sits at the intersection of chemistry, physics, biology, medicine, engineering and technology,” says Kiran. “No matter where your strengths lie, whether you love working with patients, writing code, managing teams or discovering new science, there is a meaningful place for you here.”

The main challenge for Kiran is the length of time it takes to get new radiotracers from the laboratory to the patients. “You can develop a beautiful molecule that works perfectly in rodents and then spend years navigating the regulatory and manufacturing hurdles required to use it in humans,” explains Kiran. “Science often moves faster than the systems built to verify and translate it. That tension between scientific possibility and practical translation is the challenge I grapple with most.”

However, the reward of seeing a new radiotracer work for the first time makes it all worthwhile. “After months or years of chemistry and preclinical testing, that moment is electrifying,” says Kiran. “There is nothing quite like seeing science work. But the deepest reward is knowing that this work is helping patients. When I think about the patients and families affected by chronic disorders such as cardiometabolic diseases and Alzheimer’s disease, I think about what earlier, more accurate diagnosis could mean for them. That is what keeps pushing me every day – I am contributing to making the world a better place!”

Pathway from school to medical imaging

Studying chemistry, biology and physics at school and beyond will build a valuable foundation. “Never lose sight of biology,” says Kiran. “Understanding how the body works and how disease begins at the cellular level – that’s what gives the science its purpose. The best people I’ve worked with are the ones who can think like a chemist and a biologist at the same time. You need both.”

“At university, chemistry, biochemistry, pharmacology, biomedical engineering and physics are all great pathways into the field,” says Kiran. “I’d also strongly encourage students to explore computer science or data science. AI is changing how we read and interpret imaging data, and that’s only going to grow.”

“Medical imaging is not a single discipline; it’s chemistry, physics, biology and data all talking to each other,” says Kiran. “The more ‘languages’ you speak, the further you’ll go.”

Explore careers in medical imaging

“My first advice is simple: find a lab and get involved,” says Kiran. “Reading about science is one thing – doing it is something else entirely. The moment you pipette your first compound, run your first scan or see a PET image light up a region of the brain, something clicks. That experience is irreplaceable.”

“In my lab at Wake Forest, we actively welcome motivated high school students and undergraduates for summer volunteering,” says Kiran. “Students get to work alongside our team on real neuroscience. Some students who began with us as summer volunteers have gone on to medical schools and graduate programmes at some of the country’s finest institutions.”

“The Society of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging and the World Molecular Imaging Society are the leading professional organisations in our field,” says Kiran. “They offer educational resources and host annual meetings bringing together researchers, clinicians, and students worldwide.”

Meet Kiran

I grew up in India in a lower middle-class family. Every step of the way, I depended on the generosity of people around me — family, friends, neighbours, teachers, community programmes and strangers who believed in a kid they barely knew. It taught me that where you start does not determine where you finish, and that nobody gets anywhere alone.

I lost my grandmother to dementia when she was only 64. It came on fast and it was devastating – we lost her within two months of her diagnosis. Through all of it, there were no tools to catch it early, no way to see what was happening inside her brain and, where we lived in India, no real access to specialised care even if those tools had existed. That experience never left me. Every PET tracer we develop, every image we generate, every earlier detection we inch toward – it is for her. It is for every family sitting where my family sat, watching someone they love slip away while medicine looks on without the tools to intervene.

Every radiotracer we develop starts with a biological question and then becomes an enormous, multi-layered puzzle. It takes collaboration across chemistry, biology, physics and clinical medicine to develop them. Some of the best ideas in my lab have come from conversations between a chemist and a clinician who are both looking at the same image and asking completely different questions. That collision of perspectives is where the science gets exciting.

I genuinely believe that curiosity about the world makes you a better scientist. When you sit with people whose lives look nothing like yours, you come back to the lab with a broader sense of what matters and who you are ultimately doing this work for.

Spending time with my family is what truly recharges me. My beautiful wife, Mohini, and my two cute daughters, Kiara and Kiona, have a way of pulling me completely into the present moment – and that is something no amount of data or grant writing can replicate.

Dance genuinely lights me up. I have been learning Bharatanatyam, one of the oldest and most beautiful classical dance forms from India, and it has become something I deeply treasure – the discipline, the storytelling, the way every movement carries meaning. In many ways, it reminds me of science. Both require patience, precision and a willingness to keep practising long before mastery arrives.

Kiran’s top tips

1. Get comfortable with failure. The scientists who make the biggest contributions are the ones who have the resilience to keep going when things don’t work, and the wisdom to learn something useful from every failure.

2. Find mentors who believe in you and push you. I have been fortunate throughout my career to work with scientists who challenged me to think bigger and to not be satisfied with easy answers.

3. Remember why you started. The reason for pursuing this kind of science is the impact it can have on real people’s lives. On the days when experiments fail, holding on to that purpose makes all the difference.

Do you have a question for Kiran?
Write it in the comments box below and he will get back to you. (Remember, researchers are very busy people, so you may have to wait a few days.)

Learn about how we medical imaging can advance treatment:

futurumcareers.com/can-functional-imaging-and-image-guided-therapy-revolutionise-treatments-for-neurological-disorders

Why do chemical reactions occur? Are molecules stable entities or constantly changing components in a dynamic system? These questions are best answered not by science, but by philosophy, says Dr Ross Stein. As an enzymologist, Ross studies chemical reactions with the aim of developing new drugs to treat diseases. And as a philosopher of science, he uses ideas from metaphysics to explore why these chemical reactions occur.

Ross believes that this dynamic view is more consistent with what contemporary chemistry teaches because it sees chemical reactions as part of the ongoing behaviour of the reacting system. “I view the chemical transformation of molecules from the point of view of process metaphysics, where the molecule is part of a chemical reactive system which includes the molecule, solvent and other molecules in solution,” he says.

How has philosophy influenced Ross’s science?

Although Ross’s study of philosophy is separate from his day job as an enzymologist, it has influenced the way he approaches his scientific research. His knowledge of process metaphysics helps him understand why chemical reactions depend on the dynamic nature of enzymes. “My study of philosophy has made me a more critical thinker and made my scientific writing clearer and more precise,” he says. “Philosophy stresses sound and logical arguments to support a specific position, which has carried over into how I think about scientific problems.”

As the study of knowledge and existence, philosophy helps us ask deeper questions about why the world works the way it does. How could you benefit from an understanding of philosophy?

Dr Ross Stein

Independent scholar

Fields of research: Enzymology; philosophy of science

Research project: Exploring what metaphysics teaches us about chemical reactions

About philosophy of science

“Philosophy of science is the branch of philosophy that investigates the foundations, methods and purpose of science,” says Ross. “Rather than doing science, it steps back to ask what science actually is, how it works and whether it reveals the true nature of reality.”

Philosophers of science explore questions about how scientific knowledge is developed, how scientists investigate the world and how we understand scientific explanations. “Topics include the scientific method (How is science done?), questions about realism (Are molecules real? How can we know they exist?), and ideas about the laws of nature,” says Ross.

For Ross, science and philosophy provide two ways of understanding the same reality. Science helps explain how phenomena occur, while philosophy helps us think about why they occur and what reality must be like for them to happen. “The sort of metaphysics I practise insists that whatever philosophical stance I take, it must be consistent with the findings of science,” he says.

Studying philosophy can also help scientists develop important skills in critical thinking. Philosophy encourages people to question their assumptions and clearly explain why they believe what they believe. “The chief skill lies in being able to propose an explanation for something and then defend the explanation with clarity, backing up every assumption with sound arguments,” says Ross.

Pathway from school to philosophy of science

At school, build a strong foundation in science subjects such as physics, chemistry and biology. Ross also recommends developing a broad education in subjects such as history and literature, as philosophy is focused on ideas and these subjects will help you explore how ideas develop and influence the world.

Some universities offer undergraduate programmes in philosophy of science. If this is not available, you could study a degree in philosophy while taking science courses, or vice versa.

Ross recommends gaining experience in philosophy of science by conducting research projects with professors in the field.

Explore careers in philosophy of science

Many philosophers of science are academic researchers who work at universities to philosophically study scientific questions while also teaching students.

You could work as a scientist for a company, like Ross, and apply your knowledge of philosophy to your scientific research.

Learn more about careers in the field from the Philosophy of Science Association: philsci.org

Meet Ross

I’ve been interested in science and math for as long as I can remember. As a teenager, my other main interests were music (I played the trumpet in the school band and a rock group, and I had a pretty good album collection) and reading science fiction. I didn’t do organised sports, but I played baseball and football with my friends.

My inspiration to become an enzymologist came from the biochemistry course I took during my junior year of college. The course was taught by an enzymologist, and I was lucky enough to work as a technician in his lab during my junior and senior years. This experience, along with his encouragement, set me on the course to become a scientist.

I’ve always been of a philosophical bent; I had considered studying philosophy in college. But it wasn’t until 25 years later, when I found a copy of The Reenchantment of Science by process philosopher David Griffin in a used-book store, that my interest in philosophy was fully awoken. I bought the book, read it, and was hooked!

Through The Reenchantment of Science, I discovered process philosophy, with its emphasis on the centrality of change and flux in nature. I immediately saw how the metaphysical teachings of process thinkers might help me understand, at a deeper level, the mechanisms of chemical reactions. It seemed that process philosophy could allow me to move from understanding the how of chemical reactions to exploring the why – the metaphysical principles that underpin the chemical transformation of molecules.

Even after all these years, I still enjoy being in the lab doing experiments as an enzymologist. Part of what I enjoy about philosophy is the broad, open-ended problems and questions it presents. These broad ideas complement the more narrow, practical thinking of my role as an experimental scientist.

Without question, my favourite philosopher is Alfred North Whitehead, the ‘father’ of process philosophy. His writing can be very difficult, but it is worth the effort.

Outside of my work as an enzymologist, much of my free time is devoted to reading and writing philosophy. I also continue to play the trumpet in a community band and a small jazz combo. And whenever I can, I enjoy listening to live music.

Ross’s top tip

Read constantly and broadly, and think critically by recognising and questioning every assumption.

Do you have a question for Ross?
Write it in the comments box below and he will get back to you. (Remember, researchers are very busy people, so you may have to wait a few days.)

Learn how team of philosophers and neuroscientists is exploring how animals experience pain:

futurumcareers.com/animals-in-pain-who-feels-what

It was an 8th Grade biology lesson that inspired Claire Su, a high school student at BASIS Ahwatukee in the US, to conduct her own scientific research project. After learning about the gene that causes people to perceive the taste of brussels sprouts differently, she decided to investigate the links between this gene and Alzheimer’s disease. Mentored by scientists at Arizona State University, Claire not only discovered that supertasters have a lower risk of Alzheimer’s, but she also found that a drug currently used to treat diabetes could be repurposed to prevent cognitive decline.

Next, Claire analysed genotype data from over 900 people who had taken part in the Religious Orders Study and Memory and Aging Project (ROSMAP). “I connected genotype data to the expression of nearby genes in the genome to find a potential molecular mechanism behind the association,” she explains. She discovered that the TAS2R38 gene variants themselves do not directly impact the risk of Alzheimer’s. Instead, Claire found that they act as expression quantitative trait loci, meaning they mediate the expression of nearby genes, and she identified the MGAM gene (which produces an enzyme to digest starch) as being affected. “I found that the supertaster variants are associated with a lower expression of MGAM in the Alzheimer’s-affected brain regions, and vice versa,” she says, indicating that a higher expression of MGAM is linked to cognitive decline.

Finally, Claire analysed data from the National Alzheimer’s Coordinating Center (NACC) to investigate whether MGAM-inhibiting drugs could reduce the risk of Alzheimer’s. “MGAM is a target for diabetes treatment and drugs inhibiting its expression have already been developed, which allowed me to investigate how the drug could affect the susceptibility to Alzheimer’s,” she explains. Claire found that people taking MGAM-inhibiting drugs do indeed have slower rates of cognitive decline, suggesting that these diabetes drugs could be repurposed for treating Alzheimer’s. Claire’s mentors are now exploring her findings further through animal model testing, with the aim of evaluating their potential for translation into clinical practice.

What next for Claire?

Since completing her science fair project, Claire has written up her findings and, with the support of her mentors, published them in an academic journal so that scientists and doctors around the world can learn from her work. But this wasn’t always an easy journey. “The research experience was hard at first because I knew very little about coding and data analysis when I began, but I have now become fluent in these skills,” Claire says. “There were always setbacks, such as when results weren’t statistically significant or when my code disappeared and I had to redo whole portions of the project.” However, the joys have greatly outweighed the challenges. “The moments when I got significant results really excited me!” says Claire. “During the gene expression analysis, it was fascinating to learn about lots of genes that I’d never heard of before.”

Now in 12th Grade, Claire is looking forward to going to college to study cognitive science. “I’m drawn to understanding human thought and how people see the world differently,” she says. “I want to continue doing research as I’m constantly reminded about what a big and unexplored world the human body really is and how research can help improve diagnosis and treatment of diseases.”

Claire’s story highlights how curiosity born from a science lesson can lead to remarkable new scientific discoveries, as what began as a high school science project has resulted in a potential new treatment for a devastating disease.

Claire Su

BASIS Ahwatukee, Phoenix, Arizona, USA

Field of research: Computational neuroscience

Research project: Investigating the links between the TAS2R38 taste gene and Alzheimer’s disease

Research paper: TAS2R38 taster variants-linked MGAM expression in Alzheimer’s disease: a novel target for precision drug repurposing. Su et al. (2026) doi: 10.3389/fnagi.2026.1768436

Do you have a question for Claire?
Write it in the comments box below and she will get back to you. (Remember, researchers are very busy people, so you may have to wait a few days.)

Learn how neuroscientists are investigating the link between the gut microbiome and Alzheimer’s disease:

futurumcareers.com/exploring-the-link-between-the-gut-microbiome-and-alzheimers-disease